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Reading 生: The Kanji With Over 150 Attested Readings

Reading 生 is the most extreme case in the jōyō kanji set. One character has two on'yomi, six native kun'yomi stems, roughly twenty-five nanori, and a tail of fossilized whole-word readings that pushes the dictionary-attested total past 150 across registers.12 Every concept in the readings cluster (kan-on versus go-on layers, kun'yomi semantic fields, jukujikun, nanori, rendaku) lands on this one character. That is why 生 makes the cleanest single worked example for the system as a whole.

Overview​

Why 生 is the reading champion​

The official 常用漢字表 (2010 Jōyō Kanji Table) assigns 生 two on'yomi, セイ and ショウ, plus ten kun'yomi: いきる, いかす, いける, うまれる, うむ, おう, はえる, はやす, き, and なま. The same table's 付表 (jukujikun appendix) adds two whole-word readings for compounds that contain 生: 芝生 (しばふ) and 弥生 (やよい).3

KANJIDIC2 lists those same on'yomi and kun'yomi, plus archaic verb stems な-る, な-す, む-す, and -う, and a nanori field of twenty-five entries: あさ, いき, いく, いけ, うぶ, うまい, え, おい, ぎゅう, くるみ, ごせ, さ, じょう, すぎ, そ, そう, ちる, なば, にう, にゅう, ふ, み, もう, よい, りゅう.2

The "over 150" total is a sum across registers, not a figure quoted from any one source. Two on'yomi, roughly ten jōyō kun'yomi, twenty-five nanori, and the long tail of archaic, dialectal, and compound-specific readings catalogued in the 大漢和辞典 (the fifteen-volume Morohashi reference, the most comprehensive Chinese-Japanese kanji dictionary in existence) together cross the 150 threshold.1 Native speakers actively use roughly twelve readings in daily reading; the rest surface only in proper nouns or fossilized compounds.3

The "150" is a sum across sources, not a single dictionary entry

No single reference work says "生 has exactly 150 readings." The figure rolls up the jōyō table, KANJIDIC2's nanori field, and the long tail attested in the 大漢和辞典.312 Treat it as "150+ across registers" rather than as a quiz number.

How to read this article​

This article is a worked example, not a new set of mechanics. Each section applies one concept from the readings cluster (two-reading on'yomi, kun'yomi by semantic field, jukujikun, nanori, ateji, rendaku, reading prediction) to the single kanji 生. If you read the cluster articles in isolation, you get the rules. Here, you see those rules working on one character at once.

The two on'yomi: セイ and ショウ​

セイ (the kan-on layer)​

セイ is the kan-on (漢音) reading of 生. Kan-on readings entered Japanese during the Tang dynasty, from the seventh to the ninth centuries. Envoys from the Japanese missions to Tang China brought them back, and they are the most common type of on'yomi in modern vocabulary.45 The 常用漢字表 lists セイ as the primary on'yomi for 生.3

Productive Sino-Japanese compounds containing 生 take セイ by default: 学生, 先生, 生活, 生命, 生産, 派生, 蘇生, 生命線.26

彼かれは大学だいがくの学生がくせいです。2
"He is a university student."

生活せいかつが苦くるしい。7
"Daily life is hard."

新あたらしい技術ぎじゅつが派生はせいした。7
"A new technology was derived from it."

セイ is the default Sino-Japanese reading of 生 in compounds coined or productive after the Heian period.45 When you are unsure about an unfamiliar two-kanji on+on compound, セイ is the safer guess.

ショウ (the go-on layer)​

ショウ is the go-on (呉音) reading of 生. Go-on readings entered Japan in the fifth and sixth centuries, before kan-on. They survive most reliably in inherited Buddhist, legal, and classical idiom.85 The 常用漢字表 lists ショウ as the secondary on'yomi for 生.3

ショウ-compounds tend to be Buddhist or classical: 一生 (one's whole life), 誕生 (birth), 衆生 (all sentient beings; the Buddhist translation of Sanskrit sattva), 殺生 (the taking of life; one of Buddhism's gravest sins), 畜生 (beast; also a curse), 生薬 (crude drug, herbal medicine).9101112

一生いっしょう忘わすれません。9
"I will never forget, as long as I live."

仏ほとけは一切いっさい衆生しゅじょうを救すくう。11
"The Buddha saves all sentient beings."

殺生せっしょうは仏教ぶっきょうで最もっとも重おもい罪つみの一ひとつとされる。10
"The taking of life is considered one of the gravest sins in Buddhism."

ショウ-compounds are not productive in modern coinage; the layer survives in inherited vocabulary, most reliably inside Buddhist text traditions.85 One word straddles the line: 一生 (いっしょう) keeps its go-on reading even in everyday non-religious speech. It is the most-read ショウ-compound outside specifically Buddhist registers.9

A third on'yomi exists in name only

The Japanese Wiktionary lists a 唐音 (tō-on, a later Chinese-derived reading) サン for 生, attributed to Zen-Buddhist terminology.13 No canonical Zen text was located through public sources to anchor a specific example, so the reading is best treated as a dictionary footnote rather than a fourth productive layer.

When to expect which​

The working heuristic: kan-on セイ dominates productive, post-Heian Sino-Japanese coinage; go-on ショウ dominates Buddhist, classical, and fossilized compounds inherited before the kan-on wave.845

A freshly coined compound (生命科学, 派生, 蘇生) takes セイ by default. A Buddhist or classical compound (殺生, 衆生, 畜生, 一生) takes ショウ.5

The wrinkle: 一生 reads いっしょう (go-on). Its extended form 一生涯 reads いっしょうがい (go-on across both kanji), while the rare archaic issei reading surfaces only in fossilized literary idiom.9 The takeaway is that go-on inheritance is lexical: it lives in specific words rather than in any predictable phonological context.

The kun'yomi family, by semantic field​

The kun'yomi readings of 生 cluster around meaning, not sound. Six native stems sit under the kanji. Each is tied to a different slice of the Chinese semantic field "live, be born, arise, grow, be raw." They are best learned by family rather than as a flashcard list.

LIFE and LIVING: い-きる, い-かす, い-ける​

The い- stem covers the act and the maintenance of life. 生きる (いきる) is the intransitive ru-verb "to live." 生かす (いかす) is the transitive godan partner "to make use of; to keep alive." 生ける (いける) is a transitive ichidan verb specialized for flower arrangement. It is the verb behind 生け花 (いけばな, ikebana).32

私わたしは東京とうきょうで生いきている。2
"I'm living in Tokyo."

経験けいけんを生いかして仕事しごとを選えらぶ。2
"I choose work that makes use of my experience."

母ははは花はなを生いけるのが上手じょうずだ。2
"My mother is skilled at flower arrangement."

BIRTH: う-まれる, う-む​

The う- stem covers the event of birth. 生まれる (うまれる) is the intransitive ichidan "to be born." 生む (うむ) is the transitive godan "to give birth to; to produce."32

私わたしは1995年ねんに大阪おおさかで生うまれた。2
"I was born in Osaka in 1995."

新あたらしい考かんがえが生うまれた。7
"A new idea was born."

猫ねこが子こを三匹さんびき生うんだ。2
"The cat had three kittens."

The kanji 産 takes the same readings (産まれる, 産む) for the same verbs. The 生 spelling is the default. 産 leans toward childbirth and medical contexts. The reading is identical; the kanji is the editorial choice.7

GROWTH: は-える, は-やす​

The は- stem covers organic growth. 生える (はえる) is the intransitive ichidan verb "to grow; to sprout." Hair, teeth, grass, or mold can be the subject. 生やす (はやす) is the transitive godan verb "to grow (a beard)," with an agent who lets growth happen.32

子こどもの歯はが生はえ始はじめた。2
"The child's teeth started coming in."

父ちちは髭ひげを生はやしている。2
"My father is growing a beard."

庭にわに雑草ざっそうが生はえた。2
"Weeds grew in the garden."

RAW and UNPROCESSED: なま​

なま stands as a free noun ("raw") and as a productive prefix meaning "uncooked, unprocessed, direct."32 The register is everyday and concrete, so it is safe in any spoken setting.7

Compound coverage runs from food (生卵 raw egg, 生水 unboiled water, 生ビール draft beer) to broadcasting (生放送 live broadcast, 生中継 live relay).2

生卵なまたまごは危あぶないと言いう人ひともいる。7
"Some people say raw eggs are dangerous."

この試合しあいは生放送なまほうそうです。7
"This match is broadcast live."

生なまビールを一杯いっぱいください。2
"One draft beer, please."

WOOD, UNFINISHED, FRESH: き​

き is a prefix-style reading that marks being unprocessed from a different angle than なま: less about food, more about material and character. The reading is distinct from the homophone 木 (き, "tree").314

Coverage runs from material (生地 cloth or dough, 生糸 raw silk, 生酒 unpasteurized sake) to character (生真面目 overly serious, 生粋 trueborn).21415

このシャツの生地きじは柔やわらかい。14
"The fabric of this shirt is soft."

彼かれは生粋きっすいの江戸えどっ子こだ。15
"He's a trueborn Tokyoite."

生真面目きまじめすぎて疲つかれる。2
"He's so painfully earnest, it's exhausting."

LIFE-COURSE: お-う​

The お- stem is the smallest of the six families. It is mostly literary or limited to set phrases. 生い立ち (おいたち) is "upbringing" or "one's personal history"; 生い茂る (おいしげる) is "to grow thick or luxuriantly."37 Frequency sits well below the い-, う-, and は- families.

彼かれの生おい立たちは複雑ふくざつだ。7
"His upbringing was complicated."

庭にわの木きが生おい茂しげっている。2
"The trees in the garden are growing thick."

Why a single kanji has six native stems​

Old Japanese already had separate native verbs for these meanings: いく for "live," うむ for "bear," はゆ for "sprout," おふ for "grow up," and the unbound roots なま and き for "unprocessed."1316 When Chinese 生 was imported with the broad semantic field "live, be born, arise, grow, be raw," Japanese assigned each of these native stems to it as kun-readings.

This is the kun'yomi system at its widest spread: one kanji used for a cluster of semantically adjacent native verbs that the Chinese character happened to cover all at once.13

When 生 is read inside a whole-word reading (jukujikun)​

A jukujikun reading belongs to the compound, not to the individual kanji. Wikipedia defines it as a reading of a kanji combination that has no direct correspondence to the characters' individual on'yomi or kun'yomi.17 In 生-compounds, the reading lives in the word. Trying to split it across the kanji fails.

芝生 (しばふ): when 生 reads -fu inside a whole-word reading​

芝生 (しばふ, "lawn") is one of the two 生-containing entries in the official 常用漢字表 付表 (the jukujikun appendix).318 A monolingual dictionary defines it as a place where grass covers the entire surface.19

The reading ふ corresponds to 生 only inside this word. The same ふ appears elsewhere as a nanori reading for 生. That is how the compound's reading became fixed in the first place: a name-style reading lexicalized into one common noun.132

弥生 (やよい), 壬生 (みぶ), and other lexicalized whole-word readings​

弥生 (やよい) is the second 生-containing entry in the 常用漢字表 付表.318 Its etymology traces to Old Japanese 「木草弥や生ひ月」 (kikusa iya oi tsuki, "month when grasses and trees grow ever more lushly"), attested in 日本書紀, 古今集, and 今鏡.20 Modern use covers the traditional name for the third lunar month, as well as a common feminine given name and surname.20

壬生 (みぶ) is the Kyoto place name (also a historical surname). It does not appear in the 付表, but standard place-name and surname dictionaries do list it.21

How dictionaries flag these​

Monolingual Japanese dictionaries (大辞泉, 大辞林, 日本国語大辞典) and the official 付表 mark whole-word readings by listing the whole reading for the whole compound, rather than splitting it between the kanji. The 付表 separates these entries from the regular reading table precisely because the compound's reading cannot be decomposed.317 Furigana for jukujikun is spread evenly across the compound, not pinned to individual kanji.17

How to recognize a 生-jukujikun in the wild

If the kana reading does not match any cell of the on/kun grid (no セイ, no ショウ, no い-, う-, は-, お-, き, or なま), suspect jukujikun. Then check whether the furigana sits as one even strip across the compound rather than over each kanji. If both hold, the dictionary entry, not decomposition, gives the reading.

The ~30 nanori readings of 生​

Why 生 is heavy with nanori​

Nanori are the often non-standard kanji readings found almost exclusively in Japanese names.22 生 carries a strong semantic load (life, birth, vitality, origin). That makes it heavily used in both given names and place names, so the nanori field swells accordingly.132

Representative nanori for 生​

KANJIDIC2 lists twenty-five nanori for 生: あさ, いき, いく, いけ, うぶ, うまい, え, おい, ぎゅう, くるみ, ごせ, さ, じょう, すぎ, そ, そう, ちる, なば, にう, にゅう, ふ, み, もう, よい, りゅう.2 Larger Japanese-language references log additional historical attestations and push the count higher. That is why "the 生 nanori field" is sometimes cited at twenty-five and sometimes at fifty-plus, depending on the source.13

The practical implication is the same in either case: nanori readings are not predictable from the on/kun rules. You ask, or you read the furigana on the meishi (business card).22

Place names that use 生​

A short sample of common 生-place names and their attested origins:

Place nameReadingGlossEarliest attestation
麻生あそう"where hemp grew"常陸国風土記 (Heian)
桐生きりゅう"place thick with paulownia"Nanboku-chō period, Gunma
羽生はにゅうfrom 埴生 "place of clay"Nara period, Chiba (埴生郡)
蒲生がもう"place of bulrush"Asuka period, Shiga (蒲生郡)

Source: 日本姓氏語源辞典.21

Place-name 生-readings are not predictable from the kanji alone. Readers consult the local convention or the 戸籍 / 住民票 record (family register or resident record).21

Ateji and 生​

Why 生 is mostly not an ateji vehicle​

Ateji are characters used only for their sounds. Jukujikun pairs are characters chosen for meaning, with a reading that cannot be decomposed.17 生 carries strong semantic load (life, birth, raw), which makes it a poor candidate for sound-only ateji. It is far more often used as jukujikun, where the meaning fits the compound and the reading is irregular.

Borderline cases​

生憎 (あいにく, "unfortunately") sits squarely on the ateji-jukujikun line. The English Wiktionary entry classifies 生憎 under "Japanese terms spelled with ateji."23 The Japanese-side etymology traces the modern form back to the older あやにく (with 憎 carrying its "hateful" sense). It shifted phonetically to あいにく in the early modern period, and the kanji 生 was attached as a purely phonetic fit.2423

The taxonomy is genuinely fuzzy in the literature for compounds like this. The kanji-meaning fit is poor, which argues for ateji. The reading is non-decomposable, which argues for jukujikun. Serious references split between the two labels. The practical move is to treat 生憎 as a dictionary entry to be looked up rather than a category to be resolved.17

Rendaku and 生​

When 生 voices as the second element​

Rendaku frequently affects wago (native Japanese lexemes). It affects kango (Sino-Japanese vocabulary) less often, and gairaigo (loanwords) very rarely.25 Most 生-compounds are either on+on (kango, immune to rendaku) or jukujikun (lexicalized, not subject to live rendaku). So the voicing rule rarely lands on 生 as the second element of a productive native compound.25

Three telling cases:

  • 芝生 (しばふ): the ふ stays voiceless. The whole-word reading is fixed by the 付表 and does not trigger rendaku.325
  • 一生 (いっしょう): the doubled っし is morpheme-boundary gemination from 一 (いち) plus 生 (しょう), not rendaku. Rendaku voices; it does not geminate.259
  • 派生 (はせい): on+on compound, no rendaku.25

When the second element after 生 voices​

When 生 itself is the first element with its native き- or なま- reading, rendaku does land on the following morpheme:

  • 生地 (きじ, "cloth, dough"): 地 (ち) voices to じ. The word is treated as a native-style compound: 生 (き, "crude") plus 地 (ち, "ground").14
  • 生酒 (きざけ, "unpasteurized sake"): 酒 (さけ) voices to ざけ in a native き- prefix construction.2
  • 生卵 (なまたまご, "raw egg"): 卵 (たまご) stays unvoiced. Lyman's Law blocks rendaku when the second element already contains a voiced obstruent (the ご in たまご); the prediction matches.25

Together, these three compounds show the productive rendaku pattern for native 生- prefixes: voicing applies in 生地 and 生酒, but Lyman's Law blocks it in 生卵.25

Use rendaku on what follows 生, not on 生 itself

Most 生-compounds that look like rendaku candidates (芝生, 一生, 派生) are either jukujikun or on+on. Rendaku is much more useful as a tool for predicting what comes after 生 (生地 → きじ, 生酒 → きざけ) than for predicting how 生 itself voices.

Putting it all together: predicting any 生-reading​

The decision flow​

A five-step routine covers nearly every 生-word you will meet:

Here is the same flow in prose, with the sourced claim behind each step:

  • Step 1. Is the word listed as 熟字訓 in a dictionary? Take the whole-word reading; do not decompose.17
  • Step 2. Is it a multi-kanji on+on compound? Default to セイ (kan-on); fall back to ショウ (go-on) only for Buddhist, classical, or legal idiom.845
  • Step 3. Is it 生 plus okurigana? Match the okurigana to the verb stem (い-きる, う-まれる, は-える, お-う, は-やす, い-かす, い-ける, う-む).32
  • Step 4. Is it 生 plus a native noun with no okurigana? Try なま or き by semantic fit (raw food or live broadcast → なま; cloth, silk, sake, or earnest character → き).27
  • Step 5. Is it a proper name? Look it up; nanori readings are not predictable.2221

Worked examples​

Here are five unfamiliar 生-compounds run through the flow:

生憎あいにく23
"unfortunately"

Step 1 catches it: this is a dictionary-fixed whole-word reading, classified as ateji or jukujikun depending on the reference. The decomposition stops there.24

生命線せいめいせん6
"lifeline; a line that must not be crossed"

Step 2: three-kanji Sino-Japanese compound, no Buddhist register, so kan-on セイ across the board.

生はえ際ぎわ2
"hairline"

Step 3: okurigana え identifies は-える ("to grow"), combined with 際 (ぎわ, native rendaku-voiced from きわ).

生薬しょうやく2
"crude drug; herbal medicine"

Step 2 with the go-on fallback: this is a two-kanji on+on compound. The 漢方 register (classical Sino-Japanese medicine) triggers ショウ over the default セイ.

蘇生そせい2
"resuscitation; revival"

Step 2: two-kanji on+on compound; no specialist register, so kan-on セイ.

Good to know​

The "over 150" total is a counting convention, not a quiz answer​

The figure rolls up two on'yomi, roughly ten jōyō kun'yomi, twenty-five KANJIDIC2 nanori, and the long tail of archaic, dialectal, and compound-specific readings catalogued in the 大漢和辞典. No single reference work attributes 150 readings to 生 in one entry; the number is a sum across sources.312 Native speakers actively use roughly twelve readings. The rest live in proper nouns or fossilized compounds.3

Defaulting to セイ on a Buddhist or classical compound​

Defaulting to kan-on for a word like 殺生 produces settsei, which is not a word. The correct reading is せっしょう, with go-on ショウ inherited from the term's Buddhist register.1012

殺生せっしょうは仏教ぶっきょうの戒律かいりつに反はんする。10
"Taking life violates the precepts of Buddhism."

The wider rule: when a 生-compound has a Buddhist, legal, or classical register, check for go-on before defaulting to kan-on.

生 vs 産 for "be born"​

Both 生まれる and 産まれる are read うまれる. 生まれる is the default in general prose; 産まれる leans toward childbirth and medical contexts. The reading is identical in both cases. The kanji choice is editorial, not phonological.7

The six native stems share one semantic root​

い- (live), う- (bear), は- (grow or sprout), お- (grow up), なま (raw), き (unfinished). Read together as "born, alive, growing, raw, unfinished," the six stems map onto one Chinese semantic field. Old Japanese expressed that field with separate verbs. Learning them as a family rather than as six unconnected entries reduces the memorization load.1316

Native speakers also stumble on 生 in names​

Nanori readings live almost exclusively in Japanese names and are not predictable from the on/kun set.22 Meishi (business cards) carry furigana by social convention, so names can be disambiguated at a first meeting. Even native readers wait for the furigana on an unfamiliar 生-bearing surname rather than guess.21

See also​

References​

Footnotes​

  1. 諸橋轍次. 『大漢和辞典』全15巻. 大修館書店. https://www.taishukan.co.jp/book/b197527.html ↩ ↩2 ↩3 ↩4

  2. EDRDG / Jim Breen. KANJIDIC2 entry for 生 (mirrored at Jisho.org). https://jisho.org/search/%E7%94%9F%20%23kanji ↩ ↩2 ↩3 ↩4 ↩5 ↩6 ↩7 ↩8 ↩9 ↩10 ↩11 ↩12 ↩13 ↩14 ↩15 ↩16 ↩17 ↩18 ↩19 ↩20 ↩21 ↩22 ↩23 ↩24 ↩25 ↩26 ↩27 ↩28 ↩29 ↩30 ↩31 ↩32

  3. 文化庁. 『常用漢字表』(内閣告示第二号), 2010. 付表(jukujikun appendix). https://www.bunka.go.jp/kokugo_nihongo/sisaku/joho/joho/kakuki/14/tosin02/04.html ↩ ↩2 ↩3 ↩4 ↩5 ↩6 ↩7 ↩8 ↩9 ↩10 ↩11 ↩12 ↩13 ↩14 ↩15 ↩16 ↩17 ↩18

  4. Wikipedia (English). "Kan-on." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kan-on ↩ ↩2 ↩3 ↩4

  5. Wikipedia (English). "Sino-Japanese vocabulary." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Japanese_vocabulary ↩ ↩2 ↩3 ↩4 ↩5 ↩6 ↩7

  6. 小学館. 『デジタル大辞泉』entry for 生命線. via goo辞書. https://dictionary.goo.ne.jp/word/%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD%E7%B7%9A/ ↩ ↩2

  7. 小学館. 『デジタル大辞泉』. via コトバンク (Kotobank). https://kotobank.jp/ ↩ ↩2 ↩3 ↩4 ↩5 ↩6 ↩7 ↩8 ↩9 ↩10 ↩11

  8. Wikipedia (English). "Go-on." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go-on ↩ ↩2 ↩3 ↩4

  9. 小学館. 『デジタル大辞泉』entry for 一生. via コトバンク. https://kotobank.jp/word/%E4%B8%80%E7%94%9F-434226 ↩ ↩2 ↩3 ↩4 ↩5

  10. 小学館. 『デジタル大辞泉』entry for 殺生. via コトバンク. https://kotobank.jp/word/%E6%AE%BA%E7%94%9F-548172 ↩ ↩2 ↩3 ↩4

  11. Wikipedia (日本語版). "衆生." https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A1%86%E7%94%9F ↩ ↩2

  12. 大谷大学. 「殺生」生活の中の仏教用語. https://www.otani.ac.jp/yomu_page/b_yougo/nab3mq0000000qxt.html ↩ ↩2

  13. Wiktionary (日本語版). "生." https://ja.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F ↩ ↩2 ↩3 ↩4 ↩5 ↩6 ↩7

  14. Wiktionary (English). "生地." https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E5%9C%B0 ↩ ↩2 ↩3 ↩4

  15. 国語辞典オンライン (Jitenon). Entry for 生粋. https://kokugo.jitenon.jp/word/p11129 ↩ ↩2

  16. Wiktionary (English). "生." https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F ↩ ↩2

  17. Wikipedia (English). "Jukujikun and ateji." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jukujikun ↩ ↩2 ↩3 ↩4 ↩5 ↩6

  18. ja.Wiktionary. カテゴリ:常用漢字表 付表. https://ja.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E3%82%AB%E3%83%86%E3%82%B4%E3%83%AA:%E5%B8%B8%E7%94%A8%E6%BC%A2%E5%AD%97%E8%A1%A8_%E4%BB%98%E8%A1%A8 ↩ ↩2

  19. 国語辞典オンライン (Jitenon, based on 三省堂『新明解国語辞典』ほか) entry for 芝生. https://kokugo.jitenon.jp/word/p21829 ↩

  20. 小学館. 『精選版 日本国語大辞典』. via コトバンク (Kotobank). https://kotobank.jp/ ↩ ↩2

  21. 日本姓氏語源辞典 (Japanese Surname Etymology Dictionary). Entries for 麻生, 桐生, 羽生, 蒲生. https://name-power.net/ ↩ ↩2 ↩3 ↩4 ↩5

  22. Wikipedia (English). "Nanori." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanori ↩ ↩2 ↩3 ↩4

  23. Wiktionary (English). "生憎." https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%86%8E ↩ ↩2 ↩3

  24. gogen-allguide.com (語源由来辞典). Entry for 生憎. http://gogen-allguide.com/a/ainiku.html ↩ ↩2

  25. Wikipedia (English). "Rendaku." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rendaku ↩ ↩2 ↩3 ↩4 ↩5 ↩6 ↩7