Japanese Transitivity Pairs List: 50 自他動詞 Pairs (Reference)

The Japanese transitivity pairs list below catalogs 50 自他動詞 (jita-dōshi, intransitive/transitive verb) pairs. They are grouped into the five recurring morphological patterns, with kanji, kana, JLPT level, gloss, and one example sentence per cluster.¹² This is a lookup reference; the morphology, semantics, and pedagogy are treated in the companion explainer.

Overview

A transitivity pair is a closely related pair of verbs that share a kanji root. The pair splits the work between an intransitive member (the change happens) and a transitive member (someone makes it happen).¹³ Jacobsen's core inventory identifies roughly 300 such pairs in modern Japanese. Matsumoto's revised Appendix A retains that core, and Appendix B extends it.¹²⁴ The 50 pairs in this article are the high-frequency subset that appears at JLPT N5 to N3.⁵⁶

The intransitive member takes its subject with が; the transitive member takes its object with を. Each example below shows that contrast directly.⁷³

How to use this list

What this article is and is not

This page is a pair-only lookup table. The morphological, semantic, and pedagogical analysis lives in the companion article Transitivity Pairs in Japanese (自他動詞): Intransitive vs. Transitive.¹⁸

The pair set is anchored to Jacobsen 1992 and Matsumoto's revised Appendix A and Appendix B. It also uses supplementary cross-checks from NINJAL's basic-verb handbook for high-frequency learner targets.¹²⁴⁹

How the table is organised

The 50 pairs are grouped into five morphological patterns following Jacobsen's classification: pattern 1 (-aru / -eru), pattern 2 (-ru / -su), pattern 3 (-reru / -su), pattern 4 (-u / -eru), and pattern 5 (suppletive and irregular, with unrelated or exceptional forms).¹

Each row gives the kanji and kana for both members, the JLPT level, a one-line English gloss for each member, and a source citation. One example sentence at the end of each pattern section anchors the cluster.⁷³

Columns at a glance

• Kanji (intr / tr) and Kana (intr / tr) preserve the intransitive-first convention used in Jacobsen 1992 and reproduced by Matsumoto.¹²
• JLPT is the higher of the pair's two members on Waller's Tanos JLPT vocabulary index (mirrored on Jisho.org). Where one member is non-JLPT, the level shown is the level of the JLPT-listed member.⁵⁶
• Gloss gives the standard one-line English equivalent from Genki II and Makino & Tsutsui where available, intransitive first.⁷³
• Source lists the references that document the pair.

Why the per-row JLPT level is the higher of the two

Tanos and Jisho occasionally split a pair across two JLPT ranks (例: 終わる N5 / 終える N3). Reporting the higher level lets learners who study by JLPT level read the table in order: any pair marked N4 is fully reachable by an N4 candidate.⁵⁶

Pattern 1: -aru (intransitive) / -eru (transitive)

This is the largest single pattern in Jacobsen's core inventory. The intransitive is a 五段 verb in -aru. The transitive is a 一段 verb in -eru. Both share the kanji root.¹²

#	Kanji (intr / tr)	Kana (intr / tr)	JLPT	Gloss (intr / tr)	Source
1	始まる / 始める	はじまる / はじめる	N5	begin / begin something	175
2	閉まる / 閉める	しまる / しめる	N5	close / close something	175
3	止まる / 止める	とまる / とめる	N5	stop / stop something	175
4	集まる / 集める	あつまる / あつめる	N4	gather / collect	176
5	決まる / 決める	きまる / きめる	N4	be decided / decide	126
6	見つかる / 見つける	みつかる / みつける	N4	be found / find	176
7	上がる / 上げる	あがる / あげる	N4	go up / raise, give	175
8	下がる / 下げる	さがる / さげる	N4	go down / lower	125
9	変わる / 変える	かわる / かえる	N4	change / change something	176
10	助かる / 助ける	たすかる / たすける	N3	be saved / save, help	126
11	預かる / 預ける	あずかる / あずける	N3	be entrusted with / entrust	246
12	伝わる / 伝える	つたわる / つたえる	N2	be conveyed / convey	126
13	高まる / 高める	たかまる / たかめる	N2	rise (abstract) / raise (abstract)	246

The intransitive side of this pattern is the cleanest in the language: -aru on a paired-verb root is an almost certain signal of intransitivity.¹³

授業じゅぎょうが始はじまる。⁷
"Class begins."

This cluster appears mostly at N5 and N4 in learner-facing lists. The more abstract members (高まる / 高める, 伝わる / 伝える) appear at N2.⁵⁶

Pattern 2: -ru (intransitive) / -su (transitive)

The intransitive ends in plain -ru (a 一段 -eru or -iru, or a 五段 -ru). The transitive replaces the final syllable with -su and shares the kanji root.¹⁸

#	Kanji (intr / tr)	Kana (intr / tr)	JLPT	Gloss (intr / tr)	Source
14	出る / 出す	でる / だす	N5	come out / take out	175
15	消える / 消す	きえる / けす	N5	vanish, go out / extinguish, erase	176
16	起きる / 起こす	おきる / おこす	N4	get up, occur / wake (someone), cause	176
17	落ちる / 落とす	おちる / おとす	N4	fall / drop	136
18	直る / 直す	なおる / なおす	N4	be fixed / fix	175
19	戻る / 戻す	もどる / もどす	N4	go back / put back	126
20	渡る / 渡す	わたる / わたす	N4	cross / hand over	126
21	回る / 回す	まわる / まわす	N4	go around / turn (it)	126
22	通る / 通す	とおる / とおす	N3	pass through / let pass	126
23	残る / 残す	のこる / のこす	N3	remain / leave behind	126
24	写る / 写す	うつる / うつす	N2	be reflected, photographed / copy, photograph	246

-su is the most reliable surface cue for transitivity in Jacobsen's inventory. If a paired verb ends in -su, it is almost certainly the transitive member.¹³

鍵かぎが落おちる。³
"The key falls."

消える is pattern 2, not pattern 1

消える ends in -eru, so learners may be tempted to file it with 始める and 閉める. Its partner is 消す, not the non-existent ✗消ある, so it is a -ru / -su pair. The same reasoning catches 起きる / 起こす and 落ちる / 落とす: their final syllable is -ru, not -aru.¹

Pattern 3: -reru (intransitive) / -su (transitive)

The intransitive ends in -reru (always a 一段 verb). The transitive ends in -su and shares the kanji root.¹⁸ A small sub-pattern swaps the -su for a bare 五段 -ru.¹²

#	Kanji (intr / tr)	Kana (intr / tr)	JLPT	Gloss (intr / tr)	Source
25	壊れる / 壊す	こわれる / こわす	N4	break / break something	176
26	倒れる / 倒す	たおれる / たおす	N4	fall over / knock down	246
27	汚れる / 汚す	よごれる / よごす	N4	get dirty / make dirty	246
28	折れる / 折る	おれる / おる	N4	break, snap / break, fold	126
29	切れる / 切る	きれる / きる	N5	be cut / cut	176
30	売れる / 売る	うれる / うる	N4	sell (intr) / sell (tr)	126
31	流れる / 流す	ながれる / ながす	N3	flow / let flow	126
32	離れる / 離す	はなれる / はなす	N3	separate / separate (it)	126
33	隠れる / 隠す	かくれる / かくす	N3	hide (intr) / hide (tr)	126

木きが倒たおれる。⁴
"The tree falls over."

The pattern-3 -reru is not the productive passive -reru. You can distinguish the two by the stem they attach to. Pattern-3 -reru attaches to roots with no plain stem in modern Japanese (倒れる has no ✗倒る). Passive -reru attaches to existing transitives (見る → 見られる).¹⁸

The -reru / -ru sub-pattern

Three of the entries above (売れる / 売る, 折れる / 折る, 切れる / 切る) keep -reru as the intransitive but use the bare 五段 -ru as the transitive. They sit inside pattern 3 because the intransitive shape matches. The transitive is the variant.¹²

Pattern 4: -u (intransitive) / -eru (transitive)

The intransitive is a bare 五段 verb (ending in -ku, -tsu, -mu, -bu, or -gu). The transitive is the corresponding 一段 verb in -eru and shares the kanji root.¹⁸

#	Kanji (intr / tr)	Kana (intr / tr)	JLPT	Gloss (intr / tr)	Source
34	開く / 開ける	あく / あける	N5	open / open something	175
35	立つ / 立てる	たつ / たてる	N5	stand / stand (it) up	135
36	付く / 付ける	つく / つける	N4	be attached, turn on / attach, turn on	126
37	並ぶ / 並べる	ならぶ / ならべる	N4	line up / line up (them)	176
38	進む / 進める	すすむ / すすめる	N4	advance / advance (it)	126
39	続く / 続ける	つづく / つづける	N4	continue (intr) / continue (tr)	176
40	育つ / 育てる	そだつ / そだてる	N4	grow up / raise	126
41	届く / 届ける	とどく / とどける	N3	reach, arrive / deliver	126
42	片付く / 片付ける	かたづく / かたづける	N4	be tidied up / tidy up	126

子こどもが立たつ。³
"The child stands."

-eru alone is not a reliable transitivity cue

The pattern-4 transitive ends in -eru, but 見える and 聞こえる also end in -eru and are intransitive. If you infer transitivity from -eru alone, you get the wrong answer for those high-frequency verbs. The companion explainer covers the counter-cases in depth.¹⁸

This cluster includes some of the highest-frequency learner verbs (開く / 開ける, 立つ / 立てる). Most entries therefore sit at N5 or N4.⁵⁶

Pattern 5: Suppletive and irregular pairs

These pairs resist patterns 1 to 4. Jacobsen treats them as residual classes: some are historically transparent, while others are suppletive, meaning they descend from independent roots that converged on shared semantics.¹⁸

#	Kanji (intr / tr)	Kana (intr / tr)	JLPT	Gloss (intr / tr)	Source
43	入る / 入れる	はいる / いれる	N5	enter / put in	1710
44	終わる / 終える	おわる / おえる	N3	end (intr) / end (tr)	126
45	帰る / 返す	かえる / かえす	N5	return (intr) / return (tr)	1710
46	乗る / 乗せる	のる / のせる	N3	get on / put on, give a ride	126
47	着る / 着せる	きる / きせる	N5	wear / dress (someone)	126
48	借りる / 貸す	かりる / かす	N5	borrow / lend	176
49	教わる / 教える	おそわる / おしえる	N2	be taught / teach	126
50	見える / 見る	みえる / みる	N5	be visible / see	87

人ひとが部屋へやに入はいる。⁷
"A person enters the room."

借りる / 貸す is the canonical suppletive pair: distinct kanji and distinct readings, but a clean intransitive-receiver / transitive-giver semantic alternation.¹⁷

帰る / 返す is suppletive in the strict sense. The two verbs share the kanji 帰 / 返, but their readings (kaeru / kaesu) come from historically distinct stems that modern usage collapsed onto a single "return" semantic field.¹⁰¹ Some learner references instead pair 帰る with 帰す (kaesu, "to send back"). This table follows Jacobsen and Genki II in using 返す.¹⁷

見える / 見る and 聞こえる / 聞く are pedagogical pairs, not morphological ones

Genki and other elementary textbooks list 見える / 見る (and 聞こえる / 聞く) as transitivity pairs because the が / を split lines up. Jacobsen does not list them as a paired set in his strict sense. 見える is a "spontaneous-perception" verb (something comes into the speaker's field of view of its own accord). 見る is a separate plain transitive (the speaker looks at something).¹⁸⁷

教わる / 教える sits at N2 on the Tanos list. The pair is genuine in Jacobsen but uncommon in elementary materials, so a JLPT N4 learner who recognises 教える will not necessarily have met 教わる yet.¹⁵⁶

The complete 50-pair table

The 50 pairs above are deduplicated and re-sorted by the kana reading of the intransitive member. This is the same data as the pattern sections, presented as a single flat lookup view. The Pattern column lets you re-sort by morphological class without losing the alphabetic index.

Sorted by intransitive kana

#	Kanji (intr / tr)	Kana (intr / tr)	Pattern	JLPT	Gloss (intr / tr)	Source
1	開く / 開ける	あく / あける	4	N5	open / open something	17
2	上がる / 上げる	あがる / あげる	1	N4	go up / raise, give	17
3	集まる / 集める	あつまる / あつめる	1	N4	gather / collect	17
4	預かる / 預ける	あずかる / あずける	1	N3	be entrusted with / entrust	24
5	入る / 入れる	はいる / いれる	5	N5	enter / put in	17
6	始まる / 始める	はじまる / はじめる	1	N5	begin / begin something	17
7	離れる / 離す	はなれる / はなす	3	N3	separate / separate (it)	12
8	写る / 写す	うつる / うつす	2	N2	be reflected / copy	24
9	売れる / 売る	うれる / うる	3	N4	sell (intr) / sell (tr)	12
10	落ちる / 落とす	おちる / おとす	2	N4	fall / drop	13
11	起きる / 起こす	おきる / おこす	2	N4	get up / wake (s.o.)	17
12	終わる / 終える	おわる / おえる	5	N3	end (intr) / end (tr)	12
13	折れる / 折る	おれる / おる	3	N4	break, snap / break, fold	12
14	教わる / 教える	おそわる / おしえる	5	N2	be taught / teach	12
15	帰る / 返す	かえる / かえす	5	N5	return (intr) / return (tr)	17
16	変わる / 変える	かわる / かえる	1	N4	change / change (it)	17
17	隠れる / 隠す	かくれる / かくす	3	N3	hide (intr) / hide (tr)	12
18	借りる / 貸す	かりる / かす	5	N5	borrow / lend	17
19	片付く / 片付ける	かたづく / かたづける	4	N4	be tidied / tidy up	12
20	消える / 消す	きえる / けす	2	N5	vanish / extinguish	17
21	着る / 着せる	きる / きせる	5	N5	wear / dress (s.o.)	12
22	決まる / 決める	きまる / きめる	1	N4	be decided / decide	12
23	切れる / 切る	きれる / きる	3	N5	be cut / cut	17
24	壊れる / 壊す	こわれる / こわす	3	N4	break / break (it)	17
25	下がる / 下げる	さがる / さげる	1	N4	go down / lower	12
26	閉まる / 閉める	しまる / しめる	1	N5	close / close (it)	17
27	進む / 進める	すすむ / すすめる	4	N4	advance / advance (it)	12
28	育つ / 育てる	そだつ / そだてる	4	N4	grow up / raise	12
29	倒れる / 倒す	たおれる / たおす	3	N4	fall over / knock down	24
30	高まる / 高める	たかまる / たかめる	1	N2	rise (abstract) / raise (abstract)	24
31	助かる / 助ける	たすかる / たすける	1	N3	be saved / save, help	12
32	立つ / 立てる	たつ / たてる	4	N5	stand / stand (it) up	13
33	続く / 続ける	つづく / つづける	4	N4	continue (intr) / continue (tr)	17
34	付く / 付ける	つく / つける	4	N4	be attached / attach	12
35	伝わる / 伝える	つたわる / つたえる	1	N2	be conveyed / convey	12
36	出る / 出す	でる / だす	2	N5	come out / take out	17
37	通る / 通す	とおる / とおす	2	N3	pass through / let pass	12
38	届く / 届ける	とどく / とどける	4	N3	reach, arrive / deliver	12
39	止まる / 止める	とまる / とめる	1	N5	stop / stop (it)	17
40	直る / 直す	なおる / なおす	2	N4	be fixed / fix	17
41	流れる / 流す	ながれる / ながす	3	N3	flow / let flow	12
42	並ぶ / 並べる	ならぶ / ならべる	4	N4	line up / line up (them)	17
43	乗る / 乗せる	のる / のせる	5	N3	get on / put on, give a ride	12
44	残る / 残す	のこる / のこす	2	N3	remain / leave behind	12
45	回る / 回す	まわる / まわす	2	N4	go around / turn (it)	12
46	見つかる / 見つける	みつかる / みつける	1	N4	be found / find	17
47	見える / 見る	みえる / みる	5	N5	be visible / see	87
48	戻る / 戻す	もどる / もどす	2	N4	go back / put back	12
49	汚れる / 汚す	よごれる / よごす	3	N4	get dirty / make dirty	24
50	渡る / 渡す	わたる / わたす	2	N4	cross / hand over	12

私わたしがドアを開あける。⁷
"I open the door."

How to memorise the list

Mainstream JLPT pedagogy supports three concrete strategies. First, drill pairs together in a spaced-repetition deck rather than as two separate vocabulary cards. That reinforces the morphological link on every review.⁷¹¹ Second, drill cluster by cluster. Finish pattern 1 before moving to pattern 2 so the surface cue (-aru = intr, -su = tr) sticks.¹³

Third, practise with accident-context sentences: 花瓶 が 壊れた, 鍵 が 落ちた, 木 が 倒れた. The intransitive form is the socially expected choice when a learner reports an accident in Japanese. That makes the intransitive member the one a JLPT-prep learner reaches for under pressure.¹²⁷

The companion explainer carries the full pedagogical treatment.¹⁷

Good to know

The "-su transitive, -aru intransitive" mnemonic and its limits

Two surface cues are reliable for the core paired-verb system: -su marks the transitive member, and -aru marks the intransitive member. Makino & Tsutsui list these as the most dependable signals for guessing transitivity from morphology alone.¹³

The third surface cue learners often reach for is "-eru = transitive." That cue is unreliable, because 見える, 聞こえる, and 消える are all -eru intransitives. Stating the mnemonic without the counter-examples is the most common over-generalisation in elementary classrooms.⁸¹³

Why some textbook pairs are not paired verbs at all

Genki and other elementary materials list 見える / 見る and 聞こえる / 聞く as transitivity pairs. They are not paired verbs in Jacobsen's strict morphological sense. 見える is the spontaneous-perception verb (something comes into the speaker's field of view of its own accord). 見る is a separate plain transitive (the speaker looks at something).¹⁸⁷

The pairing is convenient for learners because the が / を contrast lines up. However, the verbs do not derive from a shared root by Jacobsen's classification logic. The table above keeps 見える / 見る because the learner-facing pairing is conventional and worth recognising.

When the same kanji has more than one verb reading

The kanji 開 supports two distinct verbs: あく (五段, intransitive only) and ひらく (五段, either intransitive or transitive depending on context).¹⁰ The two are not interchangeable.

本ほんを開ひらく。¹⁰
"Open the book."

With an object marked by を, only the ひらく reading is licit. 本 を あく is ungrammatical. The same sentence reads correctly as 本 を 開く with the ひらく reading.¹⁰¹⁴ Semantically, あく / あける describes "an opening is made" (sliding doors, mouths, eyes), while ひらく / ひらける describes "something unfolds outward" (flowers, books, an umbrella).¹⁰¹⁴

Counting pairs honestly

The "top 50" label is a learner-utility selection, not a linguistic census. Jacobsen 1992 lists roughly 300 systematic transitivity pairs in modern Japanese; Matsumoto's revised Appendix A retains that core list and Appendix B adds further pairs documented since 1992.¹²⁴

The 50-pair selection above is filtered for three properties at once: appearance on the Tanos and Jisho JLPT vocabulary lists at N5 to N3, presence in Jacobsen 1992 or Matsumoto's 2018 appendices, and inclusion in mainstream elementary or intermediate textbooks (Genki II and the Makino & Tsutsui basic grammar dictionary).¹²⁷³⁵⁶

See also

• Transitivity Pairs in Japanese (自他動詞): Intransitive vs. Transitive
• The が Particle: Subject Marker (and More)
• The を Particle: Direct Object
• Japanese Verb Groups: 一段, 五段, and Irregular
• ～ている vs ～てある: State, Action, and the Implied Agent

References

Footnotes

1. Jacobsen, Wesley M. The Transitive Structure of Events in Japanese (Studies in Japanese Linguistics 1). Tokyo: Kurosio Publishers, 1992. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹² ↩¹³ ↩¹⁴ ↩¹⁵ ↩¹⁶ ↩¹⁷ ↩¹⁸ ↩¹⁹ ↩²⁰ ↩²¹ ↩²² ↩²³ ↩²⁴ ↩²⁵ ↩²⁶ ↩²⁷ ↩²⁸ ↩²⁹ ↩³⁰ ↩³¹ ↩³² ↩³³ ↩³⁴ ↩³⁵ ↩³⁶ ↩³⁷ ↩³⁸ ↩³⁹ ↩⁴⁰ ↩⁴¹ ↩⁴² ↩⁴³ ↩⁴⁴ ↩⁴⁵ ↩⁴⁶ ↩⁴⁷ ↩⁴⁸ ↩⁴⁹ ↩⁵⁰ ↩⁵¹ ↩⁵² ↩⁵³ ↩⁵⁴ ↩⁵⁵ ↩⁵⁶ ↩⁵⁷ ↩⁵⁸ ↩⁵⁹ ↩⁶⁰ ↩⁶¹ ↩⁶² ↩⁶³ ↩⁶⁴ ↩⁶⁵ ↩⁶⁶ ↩⁶⁷ ↩⁶⁸ ↩⁶⁹ ↩⁷⁰ ↩⁷¹ ↩⁷² ↩⁷³ ↩⁷⁴ ↩⁷⁵ ↩⁷⁶ ↩⁷⁷ ↩⁷⁸ ↩⁷⁹ ↩⁸⁰ ↩⁸¹ ↩⁸² ↩⁸³ ↩⁸⁴ ↩⁸⁵ ↩⁸⁶ ↩⁸⁷ ↩⁸⁸ ↩⁸⁹ ↩⁹⁰ ↩⁹¹ ↩⁹² ↩⁹³ ↩⁹⁴ ↩⁹⁵ ↩⁹⁶ ↩⁹⁷ ↩⁹⁸ ↩⁹⁹ ↩¹⁰⁰ ↩¹⁰¹ ↩¹⁰² ↩¹⁰³ ↩¹⁰⁴ ↩¹⁰⁵ ↩¹⁰⁶ ↩¹⁰⁷ ↩¹⁰⁸ ↩¹⁰⁹ ↩¹¹⁰ ↩¹¹¹ ↩¹¹² ↩¹¹³ ↩¹¹⁴ ↩¹¹⁵ ↩¹¹⁶ ↩¹¹⁷ ↩¹¹⁸

2. Matsumoto, Yo. "Appendix A: List of core transitivity pairs in Japanese (a revision of Jacobsen (1992))." In Pardeshi, P. and Kageyama, T. (eds.), Handbook of Japanese Contrastive Linguistics / Transitivity and Valency Alternations: Studies on Japanese and Beyond. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, 2018. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110477153-017/html ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹² ↩¹³ ↩¹⁴ ↩¹⁵ ↩¹⁶ ↩¹⁷ ↩¹⁸ ↩¹⁹ ↩²⁰ ↩²¹ ↩²² ↩²³ ↩²⁴ ↩²⁵ ↩²⁶ ↩²⁷ ↩²⁸ ↩²⁹ ↩³⁰ ↩³¹ ↩³² ↩³³ ↩³⁴ ↩³⁵ ↩³⁶ ↩³⁷ ↩³⁸ ↩³⁹ ↩⁴⁰ ↩⁴¹ ↩⁴² ↩⁴³ ↩⁴⁴ ↩⁴⁵ ↩⁴⁶ ↩⁴⁷ ↩⁴⁸ ↩⁴⁹ ↩⁵⁰ ↩⁵¹ ↩⁵² ↩⁵³ ↩⁵⁴ ↩⁵⁵ ↩⁵⁶ ↩⁵⁷ ↩⁵⁸ ↩⁵⁹ ↩⁶⁰ ↩⁶¹ ↩⁶² ↩⁶³ ↩⁶⁴ ↩⁶⁵

3. Makino, Seiichi and Tsutsui, Michio. A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar. Tokyo: The Japan Times, 1986, entries 自動詞 and 他動詞. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹² ↩¹³ ↩¹⁴ ↩¹⁵

4. Matsumoto, Yo. "Appendix B: List of additional transitivity pairs in Japanese (a revision of Jacobsen (1992))." Same volume. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110477153-018/html ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹² ↩¹³ ↩¹⁴

5. Waller, Jonathan. JLPT Resources (Tanos), combined N1–N5 vocabulary list. http://www.tanos.co.uk/jlpt/ ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹² ↩¹³ ↩¹⁴ ↩¹⁵ ↩¹⁶

6. Jisho.org (drawing JLPT levels from Waller's Tanos lists). https://jisho.org/about ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹² ↩¹³ ↩¹⁴ ↩¹⁵ ↩¹⁶ ↩¹⁷ ↩¹⁸ ↩¹⁹ ↩²⁰ ↩²¹ ↩²² ↩²³ ↩²⁴ ↩²⁵ ↩²⁶ ↩²⁷ ↩²⁸ ↩²⁹ ↩³⁰ ↩³¹ ↩³² ↩³³ ↩³⁴ ↩³⁵ ↩³⁶ ↩³⁷ ↩³⁸ ↩³⁹ ↩⁴⁰ ↩⁴¹ ↩⁴² ↩⁴³ ↩⁴⁴ ↩⁴⁵

7. Banno, Eri et al. Genki: An Integrated Course in Elementary Japanese II. 3rd ed. Tokyo: The Japan Times, 2020, Lesson 18 (Transitivity Pairs and 〜てある). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹² ↩¹³ ↩¹⁴ ↩¹⁵ ↩¹⁶ ↩¹⁷ ↩¹⁸ ↩¹⁹ ↩²⁰ ↩²¹ ↩²² ↩²³ ↩²⁴ ↩²⁵ ↩²⁶ ↩²⁷ ↩²⁸ ↩²⁹ ↩³⁰ ↩³¹ ↩³² ↩³³ ↩³⁴ ↩³⁵ ↩³⁶ ↩³⁷ ↩³⁸ ↩³⁹ ↩⁴⁰ ↩⁴¹ ↩⁴² ↩⁴³ ↩⁴⁴ ↩⁴⁵ ↩⁴⁶ ↩⁴⁷ ↩⁴⁸ ↩⁴⁹ ↩⁵⁰ ↩⁵¹ ↩⁵² ↩⁵³ ↩⁵⁴

8. Shibatani, Masayoshi. The Languages of Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990, ch. 7 (verb morphology and voice). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹²

9. 国立国語研究所 (NINJAL). 「日本語学習者用基本動詞用法ハンドブック」(Handbook of Basic Verb Usage for Japanese Learners) project page. https://www.ninjal.ac.jp/research/cr-project/project/b/youhoujiten/ ↩

10. 松村明 (ed.). 『大辞林』. Tokyo: Sanseidō, entries 開く (あく / ひらく), 開ける, 対 (たい / つい), 入る, 帰る. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

11. Bunpro. "他動詞・自動詞 (JLPT N4)." https://bunpro.jp/grammar_points/transitive-intransitive-verbs (limitation) ↩

12. Hayatsu, Emiko (早津恵美子). 「有対他動詞と無対他動詞の違いについて: 意味的な特徴を中心に」. 言語研究 (Gengo Kenkyū) 95 (1989): 231–256. https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/gengo1939/1989/95/1989_95_231/_pdf ↩

13. 早津恵美子. 『現代日本語の使役文』. Tokyo: ひつじ書房, 2016 (paired-verb statistics and 有対 / 無対 terminology). ↩

14. Tofugu. "あける, あく, ひらける, and ひらく: Differences Between Four Different 'OPEN's in Japanese." https://www.tofugu.com/japanese/akeru-aku-hirakeru-hiraku/ (limitation) ↩ ↩²