～にもかかわらず: How to Say "In Spite Of" Formally in Japanese
～にもかかわらず is the formal Japanese way to say "in spite of" or "despite." It marks a result that runs contrary to what a situation would lead you to expect.1 It is the written, objective counterpart to the colloquial のに. An N2 learner who already controls のに and ても uses it when the register turns to essays, reports, or formal speech.2
Overview
にもかかわらず expresses a contrast between an expected result and the actual outcome: "despite a certain situation A, an unexpected result B occurred."1 It marks a 逆接 (gyakusetsu, a "reverse" or adversative connection, like "although" or "however"). In this pattern, the B clause states a fact that contradicts what A would normally predict.2
The pattern normally describes matters that have already happened or that are true at the time of speaking. It does not usually describe hypothetical future events.2
What にもかかわらず means
The cleanest gloss is "X happens or holds, yet Y, contrary to what X would lead you to expect." The A clause sets up an expectation. The B clause overturns it.
一生懸命勉強したにもかかわらず、行きたかった大学の試験に落ちてしまった。34
"In spite of having studied hard, I failed the entrance exam for the university I wanted to attend."
努力したにもかかわらず、結果は出なかった。5
"Despite my efforts, no results came of it."
警告を受けたにもかかわらず、彼は同じ過ちを繰り返した。6
"In spite of having received a warning, he repeated the same mistake."
Structurally, にもかかわらず is a 連語 (a fixed compound) that works as a concessive conjunction, a connector meaning "although" or "despite." It also appears attached to a noun as a 複合格助詞 (compound case-marking phrase) built on the に particle.1
Register: formal, objective, written
にもかかわらず is a 硬い言い方 (a stiff, formal expression) belonging to 書き言葉 (written language). It is the formal counterpart to the colloquial のに.237
Its natural habitats are essays, reports, news writing, and formal speech.27
Unlike のに, にもかかわらず does not by itself carry blame or criticism. It is basically an objective expression that simply states the adversative relation.2
Because the phrase contains the focus particle も (取り立て助詞), the speaker's feeling can still surface in context. The Japan Foundation cites 私があれだけ言ったにもかかわらず、彼は非行に走ってしまった ("Although I told him that much, he ended up turning to delinquency"), where the speaker's regret and reproach come through. Objective is the default, not an absolute.2
The Japan Foundation's comparative chart places にもかかわらず among the 逆接 family alongside ながら(も), ものの, and にかかわらず. In that family, にもかかわらず is marked as both 硬い (formal) and 客観的 (objective). This sets it apart from the more emotionally charged or more literary alternatives.2
How it attaches
にもかかわらず connects differently depending on the word class before it. Verbs and い-adjectives use their plain form. Nouns and な-adjectives connect through the copula である in formal text.378
Attach table
| Word class | Attachment | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Noun | Noun + にもかかわらず (である optional in formal text) | 雨にもかかわらず / 雨であるにもかかわらず |
| Noun (formal) | Noun + である + にもかかわらず | 学生であるにもかかわらず |
| Verb | Plain form (普通形) + にもかかわらず | 勉強したにもかかわらず |
| い-adjective | Plain form + にもかかわらず | 忙しいにもかかわらず |
| な-adjective | な-adjective stem + である + にもかかわらず | 不便であるにもかかわらず |
For nouns and な-adjectives, である is the formal connector. Bunpro marks である as standard for な-adjectives and optional for nouns, shown in parentheses.8 A bare noun + にもかかわらず is also common and attested, as in 雨にもかかわらず.7
Verbs and い-adjectives take the 普通形 (plain form): する becomes したにもかかわらず, and 忙しい becomes 忙しいにもかかわらず.3
本日は雨天にもかかわらず、大勢の方がお集まりくださり、本当にありがとうございます。7
"Thank you very much to everyone who gathered here today despite the rain."
学生であるにもかかわらず、彼は高級車を乗り回している。9
"Even though he is (just) a student, he drives a luxury car around."
交通が不便であるにもかかわらず、その町には多くの観光客が訪れる。10
"Despite the transport being inconvenient, many tourists visit that town."
忙しいにもかかわらず、友達がお見舞いに来てくれた。112
"Even though they were busy, my friend came to visit me in the hospital."
Where it sits in the sentence
Inside a sentence, にもかかわらず joins a subordinate A clause to a main B clause in the shape A にもかかわらず、B.37
It can also open a sentence. それにもかかわらず begins a new sentence with the meaning "nevertheless" or "and yet." It picks up the entire preceding sentence as its A.17 The bare form にもかかわらず, without それ, is also attested at the start of a sentence with the same backward-pointing sense.7
当日は激しい雨が降っていた。それにもかかわらず、レースは行われた。7
"It was raining heavily that day. Nevertheless, the race was held."
彼は三か月前の試合で指を骨折した。それにもかかわらず、今回も優勝した。7
"He broke his finger in a match three months ago. Nevertheless, he won the championship this time too."
この場所では喫煙が禁止されている。にもかかわらず、たばこを吸っている人を見かける。7
"Smoking is prohibited in this area. Nevertheless, you still see people smoking."
Nuance and usage contexts
Three points often trip up learners at this level: how にもかかわらず differs from のに, how the も separates it from にかかわらず, and how それにもかかわらず works as a connective. Each turns on a single distinction.
にもかかわらず vs のに
のに and にもかかわらず share the same logic: both express 逆接, "even though A, B happens against expectation." The difference is register and attitude. のに is 話し言葉 (colloquial); にもかかわらず is 書き言葉 (written and formal).23
The attitude differs too. のに carries the speaker's 驚き・不満・非難 (surprise, dissatisfaction, or reproach) toward the unexpected outcome. にもかかわらず states the adversative relation objectively and, by default, does not carry blame or criticism.2
| Feature | のに | にもかかわらず |
|---|---|---|
| Register | Colloquial (話し言葉) | Formal, written (書き言葉) |
| Objectivity | Subjective | Objective by default |
| Tone | Surprise, dissatisfaction, reproach | Neutral statement of the contrast |
| Typical use | Conversation | Essays, reports, news, formal speech |
The Japan Foundation puts it precisely: にもかかわらず is "like のに" in presenting a situation that conflicts with the prediction from the first clause, "but unlike のに, no feeling of reproach or criticism enters."2
約束したのに、彼は来なかった。122
"Even though he promised, he didn't come." (tinged with the speaker's annoyance)
事前に合意したにもかかわらず、相手側は契約に応じなかった。132
"Despite having agreed beforehand, the other party did not enter into the contract." (a neutral report)
にもかかわらず vs にかかわらず
The も is the hinge.14 にもかかわらず means "despite a specific fact," with a result that runs contrary to expectation. にかかわらず means "regardless of." The A condition does not affect the outcome, and no contrary-to-expectation result follows.1415
| Feature | にもかかわらず | にかかわらず |
|---|---|---|
| Meaning | Despite, in spite of | Regardless of, whether or not |
| Contrary result | Yes, B runs against expectation | No, A simply does not affect B |
| Typical A | A single specific fact | Opposing pairs or range nouns |
| Example | 雨であるにもかかわらず | 天候にかかわらず |
にかかわらず and its variant にかかわりなく mean 〜に関係なく ("without relation to"). They attach to opposing pairs such as 男女 or 有無 and to range nouns such as 金額, 距離, or 天候.15 A useful test: if you can add "but something surprising still happened," you want にもかかわらず. If you mean "it makes no difference either way," you want にかかわらず.14
天候にかかわらず、試合は行われます。15
"The match will be held regardless of the weather."
雨であるにもかかわらず、試合は行われた。15
"Despite it being rainy, the match was held."
年齢にかかわらず、この仕事には応募できます。14
"You can apply for this job regardless of age."
を問わず is the close sibling of にかかわらず. It also means "regardless of" or "irrespective of." It pairs most naturally with nouns that offer a clear set of alternatives, such as 性別, 天気, or 有無.15
経験の有無を問わず、応募を受け付けます。15
"We accept applications regardless of whether you have experience or not."
それにもかかわらず as a connective
それにもかかわらず is the fixed sentence-opener meaning "nevertheless," "and yet," or "even so." それ ("that") refers back to the entire preceding sentence. にもかかわらず adds the adversative turn.17
It splits a concessive across two sentences when the A content is too long or too independent to fit inside a single A にもかかわらず、B clause.7 Like にもかかわらず itself, it is formal and written. In conversation, でも or それでも is the everyday equivalent.27
戦争の悲惨さは誰もが知っている。それにもかかわらず、戦争はこの世からなくならない。7
"Everyone knows the misery of war. Nevertheless, war never disappears from this world."
医師に何度も忠告された。それにもかかわらず、彼は喫煙をやめなかった。16
"He was warned by his doctor many times. Nevertheless, he did not quit smoking."
厳しい寒さが続いた。それにもかかわらず、桜は例年どおり咲いた。17
"The severe cold continued. Nevertheless, the cherry blossoms bloomed on schedule as in other years."
Good to know
Where にもかかわらず comes from: 関わる + かからず
にもかかわらず breaks down as the compound にも plus the verb かかわる in its irrealis stem (未然形) かかわら plus the classical negative auxiliary ず. Together, this gives "(also) not being concerned with" or "not bound by."1 The relevant sense of かかわる is "to be constrained by an outside force; to be subject to it," recorded as sense ③ in 日本国語大辞典.18 So かかわらず means "not constrained by," and にもかかわらず means "without even being subject to the fact that A." From there, "in spite of A" follows. デジタル大辞泉 lists the same verb under "to have a relation" and "to be affected."19
This single etymology explains both branches a learner meets. The "despite" branch (にもかかわらず) reads as "not bound even by A, so A happened, yet B." The "regardless of" branch (にかかわらず) reads as "not bound by A, so A makes no difference."
The kanji form 関わらず and why hiragana is safer
The phrase is written three ways: にもかかわらず in kana, にも関わらず with 関, and にも拘わらず with 拘. The prescriptively "correct" kanji for the こだわらない sense is 拘. But 拘 in this reading sits outside the 常用漢字 table as a 表外読み (a reading outside the official list), so official and edited Japanese writes it in kana.20
The rule is shared across 公用文 (official documents), 新聞表記 (newspaper style), and NHK表記 (broadcasting style): write かかわらず in hiragana for this grammatical use.20 関わる is the correct kanji when the verb means "to be involved" or "to relate to," as in 研究に関わる. But for the fixed concessive pattern, kana is the edited-text default.20
Don't reach for にもかかわらず in casual speech
にもかかわらず is a 硬い 書き言葉 (stiff, written-language) expression. In everyday conversation, it sounds stilted. Use のに or ても for "even though" when speaking casually, and reserve にもかかわらず for essays, reports, news, and formal speech.237
The error here is matching a 書き言葉 (written-language) form to a 話し言葉 (spoken-language) context. Saying 約束したにもかかわらず、来なかったよ to a friend is too stiff for the setting. The natural colloquial version is below.23
約束したのに、来なかったよ。21
"Even though they promised, they didn't come."
The noun trap: 学生にもかかわらず needs no である, but the rule is subtle
For な-adjectives, である is required: 不便であるにもかかわらず, not 不便にもかかわらず. For nouns, である is optional. Both 雨にもかかわらず and 雨であるにもかかわらず occur, with the bare-noun form common and である adding formality.78
The common learner error is dropping である after a な-adjective. Writing 真面目にもかかわらず、評価されない is incorrect because the な-adjective 真面目 needs the copula to connect.8
真面目であるにもかかわらず、評価されない。22
"Despite being diligent, they are not appreciated."
A quick way to remember the split: verbs and い-adjectives plug in bare, while nouns and な-adjectives bring である as their adapter. Plain (普通形) predicates attach directly. The copula-bearing classes need である to connect.823
See also
- のに: How to Say "Even Though" with Frustration in Japanese (Counter-Expectational)
- ～ものの: "Although / Even Though" in Japanese
- The ～ながら Form in Japanese: Doing Two Things at Once (and the Concessive ～ながら(も))
- ～ても: How to Say "Even If" and "Even Though" in Japanese
- ～にしても: How to Say "Even Considering" or "Regardless Of" in Japanese (高いにしても買う)
- The Japanese Copula: です, だ, である Explained