Classical Grammar Survivals in Modern Japanese

Classical grammar survivals in modern Japanese are forms that descend from 文語 (bungo), the classical literary grammar. They still surface in present-day proverbs, signage, news, legal text, and formal prose.¹² A reader who knows core modern grammar meets these survivals not as live conjugations, but as fixed units to recognize and parse.

Overview

The forms catalogued here are bungo remnants embedded in 口語 (kougo), the colloquial standard grammar. They live in idioms, set phrases, administrative wording, editorial register, and literary writing. Readers treat them as whole units rather than re-conjugating them through the full classical paradigm.¹²

The largest single family descends from the classical negative auxiliary. The bungo 打消 (negation) auxiliary is ず. It conjugates 未然 (な) / 連用 (に) / 終止 (ず) / 連体 (ぬ) / 已然 (ね), with a supplementary ざり series: 未然 ざら / 連用 ざり / 連体 ざる / 已然・命令 ざれ. It attaches to the 未然形 of the verb.¹ Modern ない fills that same slot, so every surviving ず-family form maps onto a modern ない form.

Why classical forms persist

Bungo did not enter kougo through one single switch. Instead, each form survived for its own reason: a proverb froze, a piece of signage became standard, or a literary register kept a marker alive. The per-form etymologies in the catalog below tell that story one survival at a time.

What unites them is their mode of survival. A survival is recognized as a unit, not productively conjugated. A reader does not generate new classical forms. Instead, the reader meets a frozen or semi-frozen one in a text and decodes it.¹²

Survival vs. systematic classical grammar

This article is a recognition catalog of individual survivals. The full classical system, with its conjugation grades and complete auxiliary set, is a separate topic and is not taught here.

Want the whole classical system, not just the survivors?

The systematic paradigm, including the four-grade verb system and the full classical auxiliary set, belongs in a dedicated bungo grammar primer for modern readers. This article stays at the level of recognizing one survival at a time.

The ～べき / ～べし / ～べからず family and the ～まじき form get only recognition-level coverage here. Both point to their own dedicated treatments in the sections below.

A reader's recognition checklist

The practical frame has three steps: spot the classical marker, map it to its modern equivalent, and read the register the form signals.

The per-form "descends from" lines in the catalog feed step two, and the mapping table in "How to parse a survival cold" collects them into one reference. The catalog itself supplies the raw material for all three steps.

The survivals catalog

～ぬ / ～ん: the classical negative

This form descends from the bungo 打消 auxiliary ず, whose 連体形 (attributive) is ぬ. ぬ attaches to the verb 未然形 and corresponds to the modern ない.¹

The variant ～ん is the 撥音 (moraic-nasal) form of ぬ. Wiktionary glosses the auxiliary ん as the 撥音形 of the negative ぬ, meaning ～でない ("is not" or "does not"). It also notes that ん is common in dialects from 中部地方 through 沖縄県. In the standard language, it gives a 方言的・古風 (dialectal or archaic) impression except when attached to ます.³

知しらぬが仏ほとけ。⁴
"What you do not know cannot hurt you." (literally "Not knowing is being a Buddha.")

The proverb 知らぬが仏 is recorded with the reading しらぬがほとけ; the ぬ here is the frozen classical attributive negative.⁴

夜明よあけ前まえに出発しゅっぱつせねばならぬ。⁵
"We must set out before dawn."

ねばならぬ is the bungo twin of modern ねばならない. The construction is 打消 ず in its 已然形 ね plus ば plus ならぬ, expressing obligation.⁵

～ず / ～ずに: the negative continuative

This form descends from the 連用形 (continuative) of bungo ず. The 連用形 ず functions adverbially, meaning "without doing." The modern ～ずに carries the same sense.¹

思おもわずかっとなる。⁶
"to flare up without meaning to."

絶たえず水みずが湧わき出でている。⁷
"Water is constantly welling up."

思わず and 絶えず are fully lexicalized adverbs, each carrying a 副 (adverb) part-of-speech tag in the dictionary. They are frozen survivals, not productive ず-marking.⁶⁷

The productive descendant is ～ずに. The extended pattern ～ずにはいられない ("cannot help doing") is treated as N3 to N2 grammar.⁸ In the example below, the verb stem is constructed to illustrate the frame, not quoted from a source.

食たべずにはいられない。⁸
"I cannot help eating it."

～ざる / ～ざるをえない: the attributive negative

This form descends from the ざり-series 連体形 ざる of bungo ず. Historically, the ざり series is ず plus あり.¹ ざる is the attributive negative, corresponding to modern ない in attributive position.

The high-frequency survivor ～ざるをえない is parsed in the dictionary as a 連語 (fixed phrase) meaning 「…しないわけにはいかない。やむをえず…する」, "cannot avoid doing" or "do unwillingly because there is no choice." Structurally, it is ざる (negative attributive) plus を plus 得ない ("cannot obtain the option of not doing").⁹

悪天候あくてんこうが続つづけば登頂とうちょうは断念だんねんせざるを得えない。⁹
"If the bad weather continues, we will have no choice but to abandon the summit attempt."

見みざる聞きかざる言いわざる。¹⁰
"See no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil." (the three monkeys, 三猿)

In 見ざる聞かざる言わざる the ざる is the bungo attributive negative, and the 三猿 set phrase exploits its homophony with さる ("monkey").¹⁰

The productive ～ざるをえない maps onto modern なければならない or ～しかない, and routes there for its modern equivalent.⁵ Below, the ～ざるを得ない frame is filled with a constructed verb to show productivity. The attested dictionary example is the 断念せざるを得ない sentence above.

言いわざるを得えない。⁹
"I am forced to say it."

～がたい / ～難い: hard to do

This form descends from the bungo adjective 難し (かたし), surviving as the suffix がたい. The dictionary tags it as a 接尾 (suffix) with the classical note がた・し（ク活）. It attaches to the 動詞の連用形 (verb continuative form) and means 「その動作の実現が困難であることを表す」, that is, "hard to" or "difficult to."¹¹

信しんじがたい。¹¹
"hard to believe."

得えがたい。¹¹
"hard to come by, precious."

いわく言いいがたい。¹¹
"hard to put into words."

～がたい is more formal and literary than modern ～にくい. Both attach to the 連用形 and mean "hard to." がたい leans toward lexical difficulty and inner judgment (信じがたい), while にくい covers practical difficulty.¹¹

The fully frozen fossil in this family is ありがたい. Classical ありがたし is 「あり（有る）」連用形 plus 「かたし（難し）」. It originally meant "存在することが難しい" (hard to exist, seldom found), then drifted through "precious" to the modern sense of gratitude. Speakers no longer analyze the 難し inside it.¹²

～ごとし / ～ごとく / ～ごとき: likeness

This form descends from the bungo 比況 (comparison) auxiliary ごとし. The dictionary tags it as a 助動詞 (auxiliary) with the conjugation ［○｜ごとく｜ごとし｜ごとき｜○｜○］. It attaches to the 連体形 of inflecting words, to nouns, and to the particles の and が. Its senses are 比喩 「…のようだ」 (metaphor, "is like"), 例示 「たとえば…のようだ」 (example, "such as"), and 不確実な断定 「…らしい」 (uncertain assertion, "seems").² The modern equivalent is ～ようだ.

The three live shapes split by function. ごとく is the 連用形 ("as, in the manner of," as in 例のごとく "as usual"). ごとし closes a sentence. ごとき modifies a noun.²

光陰矢こういんやの如ごとし。¹³
"Time flies." (literally "Time is like an arrow.")

あをによし奈良ならの都みやこは咲さく花はなのにほふがごとく今盛いまさかりなり。²
"The capital of Nara, like the glow of blossoming flowers, is now at its height." (連用形 ごとく)

おごれる人ひとも久ひさしからず、ただ春はるの夜よの夢ゆめのごとし。²
"The proud do not endure; they are as a dream on a spring night." (終止形 ごとし)

The 連体形 ごとき modifies a noun, with the sense "the likes of," and attaches directly to nouns and to the particles の and が.²

～つつ / ～つつある: while / in the process of

This form descends from the bungo 接続助詞 (conjunctive particle) つつ, which attaches to the 連用形 of verbs and verb-type auxiliaries.¹⁴ The dictionary gives two senses: parallel action 「…ながら」 ("while") and 逆接 (concession) 「…にもかかわらず」 ("although" or "despite").¹⁴

諸事情しょじじょうを考慮こうりょしつつ計画けいかくを立たてる。¹⁴
"drawing up a plan while taking all circumstances into account." (parallel つつ)

早起はやおきが健康けんこうにいいと知しりつつ、つい寝ねすごしてしまう。¹⁴
"Even though I know early rising is good for my health, I end up oversleeping." (concessive つつ)

～つつ is the formal written twin of ～ながら for parallel action. The concessive ～つつ(も) means "even while" or "even though."¹⁴

The aspectual extension ～つつある means "is in the process of." The 精選版日本国語大辞典 entry notes that the older sense expressed 継続 ("…ている"), while modern examples emphasize 進行性, the progression of an action.¹⁵ The gloss-example below is constructed as a wrapper, not a quoted sentence.

動作どうさの進行しんこうを表あらわす「つつある」。¹⁵
"the ～つつある that expresses an action in progress."

～つつある appears heavily in news and editorial register for ongoing change, as in 発展しつつある ("is developing").¹⁵

～や否や: the moment that

This form descends from 否や (いなや), built on 否 (ina, "no, the contrary"). The dictionary gives the use 「…やいなや」, meaning 「…とすぐに。…と同時に」 ("the moment that" or "at the same time as").¹⁶ The modern near-equivalent is ～たとたん. The form is tagged N1.¹⁷

かばんを置おくや否いなや、外そとに飛とび出だした。¹⁶
"The moment he set down his bag, he dashed outside."

や否や is literary and written. It marks near-simultaneity, and the preceding clause is typically a momentary-action verb such as 置く.¹⁶ Compared with the colloquial ～たとたん, や否や signals formal written register.¹⁷ The dictionary routes や否や to the 否や headword and supplies a single attested example, so this section keeps that one example rather than padding with constructed sentences.

Classical たり: 完了 たり vs. the modern listing ～たり…たり

Several distinct たり share the same surface. The dictionary lists three entries: a 完了・存続 auxiliary たり (たら・たり・たり・たる・たれ・たれ), meaning 「…ている。…てある」; a 断定 auxiliary たり (たら・と・たり・たる・たれ・たれ), meaning 「…である。…だ」; and the modern 並立 接続助詞 たり, the alternation in 「泣いたり笑ったりする」.¹⁸

The trap for a reader is the surviving 〜たる attributives. Forms like 堂々たる and 確固たる descend from the 断定 たり (a 形容動詞タリ活用 whose 連体形 is たる). They are not the modern listing たり…たり.¹⁸

堂々どうどうたる邸宅ていたく。¹⁹
"an imposing mansion." (classical 断定 たり, 連体形 たる)

確固かっこたる信念しんねん。²⁰
"an unshakeable conviction." (classical 断定 たり, 連体形 たる)

暑あつかったり寒さむかったりの異常いじょうな陽気ようき。¹⁸
"strange weather, now hot, now cold." (modern listing たり…たり, for contrast)

堂々たる and 確固たる are frozen 四字熟語-adjacent attributives, common in formal prose and speeches. The modern listing たり…たり routes to its own article for disambiguation.¹⁸ As a historical thread, the classical 完了 たり is the ancestor of the modern past た, which routes to the past-tense た-form article.¹⁸

～べからず / ～べし family

Coverage here is recognition only; the ～べき / ～べし / ～べからず family has a dedicated treatment that teaches it in full.

The form descends from the 推量 auxiliary べし in its 未然形 plus the 打消 auxiliary ず. The dictionary gives べからず as 「（文末に用いて）禁止を表す」 (marks prohibition at the end of a sentence). It gives the example 「展示品に手を触れるべからず」 and notes the formal-register 「立ち入るべからず」.²¹

展示品てんじひんに手てを触ふれるべからず。²¹
"Do not touch the exhibits."

初心忘しょしんわするべからず。²²
"Never forget the beginner's mind."

べからず is the prohibition survivor of signage and proverbs (立入るべからず, 展示品に手を触れるべからず). 初心忘るべからず is attested to 世阿弥『花鏡』(1424). The 文化デジタルライブラリー records three transmissions: 是非・時々・老後の初心不可忘.²²²³ Full teaching of べき and べし routes to its dedicated article.

～まじき: the negative twin

Coverage here is a one-line pointer; the ～まじき form has a dedicated treatment and is not re-taught.

The form descends from the 打消推量 auxiliary まじ in its 連体形 まじき. The dictionary parses あるまじき as 動詞「あり」連体形 plus まじ連体形, meaning 「あってはならない。とんでもない」 ("must not exist" or "outrageous").²⁴ The example below fills the standard 〇〇にあるまじき行為 frame with 教師 to illustrate. It is not a quoted sentence.

教師きょうしにあるまじき行為こうい。²⁴
"conduct unbecoming a teacher."

あるまじき行為 is the high-frequency frozen collocation; the productive まじき is N1 and routes to its dedicated article.²⁴

How to parse a survival cold

Map the marker to its modern equivalent

The recognition table below collects each survival's classical-to-modern mapping. Every row is sourced from the catalog above.

Classical form	Modern equivalent	Register signal
ぬ / ん	ない (negative)13	proverb, idiom; ん dialectal or archaic
ず / ずに	ないで / ずに (negative continuative)1	adverbial, formal-written
ざる	ない (attributive negative)91	formal, set phrase
ざるをえない	なければならない / しかない9	formal-written obligation
がたい	にくい / しにくい (hard to)11	formal, literary
ごとし / ごとく / ごとき	ようだ / ように / ような2	literary, idiomatic
つつ	ながら (parallel) / のに (concessive)14	formal-written
つつある	ているところ15	news, editorial
や否や	たとたん / とすぐに16	literary, written
たる (堂々たる)	である / な192018	formal set attributive
べからず	てはいけない (prohibition)21	signage, proverb

Read the register the form signals

Choosing a survival signals register. べからず points to signage and prohibition.²¹ ざる and ねばならぬ point to formal written obligation.⁵ つつある and や否や point to news and editorial writing.¹⁵¹⁶ ぬ and がたい point to proverb and idiom.⁴¹¹ 堂々たる points to a formal set attributive.¹⁹

A writer reaches for ざるをえない over しかない to keep a formal written tone. The dictionary frames it as 「やむをえず…する」 ("do because there is no other choice"), an unwilling-but-forced register that しかない does not carry as strongly.⁹

When a survival is frozen vs. live

Some survivals are fossils, no longer parsed as compositions. ありがたい is no longer read as 有り plus 難し.¹² 思わず and 絶えず are lexicalized adverbs.⁶⁷ 知らぬが仏, 見ざる聞かざる言わざる, and 光陰矢の如し are set proverbs.⁴¹³¹⁰ 堂々たる and 確固たる are set attributives.¹⁹²⁰

Others stay live in formal prose and are used productively by writers. ざるをえない⁹, つつある¹⁵, ねばならぬ⁵, and べからず on new signage²¹ all remain available to a writer who wants the register they carry.

How to parse a survival cold, step by step

The recognition checklist from the Overview becomes a short decision flow once a form is in front of you. The diagram below traces it: identify the marker class, resolve the specific form, then read its register.

Nuance and usage contexts

Where each survival surfaces

Each survival has a home register where you are most likely to meet it.

• Signage and prohibitions: べからず (立入るべからず, 展示品に手を触れるべからず).²¹
• Legal, administrative, and formal obligation: ざる, ざるをえない, ねばならぬ.⁹⁵
• News and editorials: つつある, や否や.¹⁵¹⁶
• Proverbs and idioms: ぬ (知らぬが仏), がたい (得がたい), ごとし (光陰矢の如し), ざる (見ざる聞かざる言わざる).^4131110
• Set 四字熟語-style attributives: 堂々たる, 確固たる, 白昼堂々.¹⁹²⁰

Survivals you can use vs. survivals you only read

For an N1 learner, some survivals are safe to write in formal Japanese: ～ざるをえない⁹, ～つつ and ～つつある¹⁴¹⁵, ～がたい¹¹, and ねばならぬ in formal or written contexts.⁵

Others are for recognition only and are rarely produced: the bare 連体形 ぬ outside fixed idioms¹, ごとし and ごとき in productive use², や否や as a heavily literary marker¹⁶, and べからず and まじき. The last two route out and are met as signage or idiom.²¹²⁴

The ～ん contraction is not formal-writing material

The colloquial ～ん in 分からん or すまん is the dialectal contraction of bungo ぬ, flagged as 方言的・古風 (dialectal or archaic) in the standard language. It belongs to casual speech, not to the formal register the other survivals signal.³¹

Good to know

ありがとう descends from 有り難し ("rarely exists")

Classical ありがたし is 「あり（有る）」連用形 plus 「かたし（難し）」, originally "hard to exist, seldom found." The sense shifted through "precious" to the modern expression of thanks.¹² Modern speakers no longer parse the 難し inside it. That makes ありがたい and ありがとう frozen がたい survivals rather than live "hard to" forms.

Mistaking 確固たる or 堂々たる for the listing たり…たり

The たる in 確固たる is the 連体形 of the classical 断定 auxiliary たり ("…である"), a 形容動詞タリ活用. It is not the modern alternation たり…たり seen in 泣いたり笑ったり.¹⁸ Reading 確固たる as "doing X-ing and Y-ing" mis-parses it. The correct reading is the attributive "firm, unshakeable."

確固かっこたる信念しんねん。²⁰
"an unshakeable conviction." (attributive 断定 たり, not listing たり)

The dictionary lists 断定 たり and 並立 たり as separate entries, and tags 堂堂 and 確固 as 形動タリ.¹⁹²⁰¹⁸

The ん in 分からん is the classical negative, not the explanatory ん

The negative ん in 分からん is the 撥音形 of bungo ぬ (打消 ず 連体形), dialectal or colloquial in the standard language.³¹ It is a different morpheme from the sentence-final explanatory ん (the contracted の of のだ / のです), even though the two look identical on the page. The explanatory ん is not sourced in this article's manifest, so this article limits the contrast to the negative ん.

ず and ぬ fill different classical slots

ず is the 連用形 (adverbial, "without doing": 思わず, 絶えず). ぬ is the 連体形 (attributive negative, modern ない: 知らぬ).¹ Confusing the two slots mis-parses the form. It reads an adverbial "without" where the text means an attributive "not."

見ざる聞かざる言わざる puns ざる on さる ("monkey")

The ざる in the three-monkeys phrase is the bungo attributive negative (the ざり-series 連体形 of ず). The 三猿 set exploits its homophony with 猿 (さる, "monkey"). The negative auxiliary doubles as the animal.¹⁰

See also

• Focus Particles: こそ, さえ, すら, だに
• The ～ている Form in Japanese: Progressive vs. Resultant State
• Japanese Speech Levels: Plain, Polite, Formal, and Literary Register
• Spoken-Word vs. Written-Word Japanese: 話し言葉 vs. 書き言葉

References

Footnotes

1. 本多『百人一首で始める古文書講座』, 古文助動詞「ず」の活用と接続. https://honda-n2.com/kobun-jodoushi-zu ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹² ↩¹³ ↩¹⁴

2. 小学館『デジタル大辞泉』, 「如し」(ごとし)［助動］. Via コトバンク. https://kotobank.jp/word/%E5%A6%82%E3%81%97-503074 ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰

3. ウィクショナリー日本語版, 助動詞「ん」. https://ja.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E3%82%93 ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

4. 小学館『デジタル大辞泉』, 「知らぬが仏」(しらぬがほとけ). Via コトバンク. https://kotobank.jp/word/%E7%9F%A5%E3%82%89%E3%81%AC%E3%81%8C%E4%BB%8F-535942 ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

5. 小学館『デジタル大辞泉』, 「ねばならぬ」／「ねばならない」［連語］. Via コトバンク. https://kotobank.jp/word/%E3%81%AD%E3%81%B0%E3%81%AA%E3%82%89%E3%81%AC-595486 ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

6. 小学館『デジタル大辞泉』, 「思わず」(おもわず)［副］. Via コトバンク. https://kotobank.jp/word/%E6%80%9D%E3%82%8F%E3%81%9A-454967 ↩ ↩² ↩³

7. 小学館『デジタル大辞泉』, 「絶えず」(たえず)［副］. Via コトバンク. https://kotobank.jp/word/%E7%B5%B6%E3%81%88%E3%81%9A-558991 ↩ ↩² ↩³

8. 小学館『デジタル大辞泉』, 「ずにはいられない」. Via コトバンク. https://kotobank.jp/word/%E3%81%9A%E3%81%AB%E3%81%AF%E3%81%84%E3%82%89%E3%82%8C%E3%81%AA%E3%81%84-542821 ↩ ↩²

9. 小学館『デジタル大辞泉』, 「ざるを得ない」(ざるをえない)［連語］. Via コトバンク. https://kotobank.jp/word/%E3%81%96%E3%82%8B%E3%82%92%E5%BE%97%E3%81%AA%E3%81%84-512588 ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹

10. ウィキペディア日本語版, 「三猿」(見ざる聞かざる言わざる). https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E7%8C%BF ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

11. 小学館『デジタル大辞泉』, 接尾語「がたい」(難い)［文］がた・し（ク活）. Via Weblio. https://www.weblio.jp/content/%E3%81%8C%E3%81%9F%E3%81%84 ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹

12. 語源由来辞典, 「有り難い／ありがたい」. https://gogen-yurai.jp/arigatai/ ↩ ↩² ↩³

13. 小学館『デジタル大辞泉』, 「光陰矢の如し」(こういんやのごとし). Via Weblio. https://www.weblio.jp/content/%E5%85%89%E9%99%B0%E7%9F%A2%E3%81%AE%E5%A6%82%E3%81%97 ↩ ↩² ↩³

14. 小学館『デジタル大辞泉』, 「つつ」(接続助詞). Via コトバンク. https://kotobank.jp/word/%E3%81%A4%E3%81%A4-565811 ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

15. 小学館『デジタル大辞泉』, 「つつある」. Via コトバンク. https://kotobank.jp/word/%E3%81%A4%E3%81%A4%E3%81%82%E3%82%8B-331258 (this page renders the 精選版 日本国語大辞典 entry) ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

16. 小学館『デジタル大辞泉』, 「否や」(いなや). Via コトバンク. https://kotobank.jp/word/%E5%90%A6%E3%82%84-435201 ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

17. Bunpro grammar point, や否や (JLPT N1). https://bunpro.jp/grammar_points/%E3%82%84%E5%90%A6%E3%82%84 ↩ ↩²

18. 小学館『デジタル大辞泉』, 「たり」（複数項目：完了・存続の助動詞／断定の助動詞／並立の接続助詞）. Via コトバンク. https://kotobank.jp/word/%E3%81%9F%E3%82%8A-563266 ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

19. 小学館『デジタル大辞泉』, 「堂堂」(どうどう)［ト・タル］［文］［形動タリ］. Via コトバンク. https://kotobank.jp/word/%E5%A0%82%E5%A0%82-581049 ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

20. 小学館『デジタル大辞泉』, 「確固」(かっこ)［ト・タル］［文］［形動タリ］. Via Weblio. https://www.weblio.jp/content/%E7%A2%BA%E5%9B%BA ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

21. 小学館『デジタル大辞泉』, 「べからず」. Via コトバンク. https://kotobank.jp/word/%E3%81%B9%E3%81%8B%E3%82%89%E3%81%9A-624580 ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

22. 小学館『デジタル大辞泉』ほか, 「初心忘るべからず」(しょしんわするべからず). Via コトバンク. https://kotobank.jp/word/%E5%88%9D%E5%BF%83%E5%BF%98%E3%82%8B%E3%81%B9%E3%81%8B%E3%82%89%E3%81%9A-534696 ↩ ↩²

23. 独立行政法人日本芸術文化振興会『文化デジタルライブラリー』, 世阿弥『花鏡』(1424) の解説. https://www2.ntj.jac.go.jp/dglib/contents/learn/edc9/zeami/gyouseki/kakyou_details.html ↩

24. 小学館『デジタル大辞泉』, 「あるまじき」(連語：動詞「あり」連体形＋打消推量「まじ」連体形). Via Weblio. https://www.weblio.jp/content/%E3%81%82%E3%82%8B%E3%81%BE%E3%81%98%E3%81%8D ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴